FAMILY FUNCTIONS

FAMILY FUNCTIONS

Schiamberg (1983)

1. Socialization of children

2. Economic cooperation & division of labor

3. Care, supervision, monitoring, and interaction

4. Legitimizing sexual relations

5. Reproduction

6. Provision of status: Social - familial attributes (SES, location)

Ascribed - birth order

Achieved - based on individual's effort

7. Affecction, emotional support & companionship

FUNCTIONS & CHARACTERISTICS OF HEALTHY FAMILIES:

CALLAGHAN (1987)

1. clearly identified hierarchy

2. well-defined parental roles

3. flexibility & adaptability - Can respond to situational & maturational crises

4. consistent, clear rules & expectations

5. consistent affection

6. consistent limit-setting

7. open communication, bi-directional

8. increased degree of support nurturance and acceptance of family members

CHARACTERISTICS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL FAMILIES

Minuchian (1978)

1. Rigidity - lack of flexibility

2. Lack of individuation - emeshment /loss of autonomy

3. Extreme detachment

4. Scape-goating - family member (often child) who is the object of displaced conflict/criticism

5. Triangulation - Detouring conflict between 2 people by involving a third person, thereby stabilizing the relationship between the original pair

6. Faulty problem solving skills

7. Conflict avoidance

8. Inconsistent application of affection/discipline

9. Low levels of support/nurturance/acceptance

10. Increased degree of expressed hostility towards each other/other family members

BALDWIN-SHAEFFERS CLASSIFICATION OF FAMILY TYPES

The Baldwin-Shaeffer (1959) model is predicated on the idea that all families will organize themselves along the dimensions of control and affection. How a particular family demonstrates control and affection translates into specific parenting/child rearing techniques or procedures. Subsequently, specific child rearing techniques directly impact upon the personality development of the child. All families organize themselves along the dimensions of affection and control which will result in specific child-rearing techniques, approaches, & behaviors. The family will demonstrate a unique pattern of affection, involvement, and supervision/ control which will influence both the development and behavior of the child.

DIMENSIONS OF PARENTAL BEHAHVIOR:

1. CONTROL

Parental control is conceptualized as the degree to which parents exert control and power over the child, as well as an indicator of the level of direct involvement in the activities of the child. It is defined in terms of the degree of supervision/monitoring of the child's activities, the quality, nature, consistency of discipline, and the parent's need to control the child.

Dimensions of parent control are:

DEMANDINGNESS - The degree to which parents will insist upon age appropriate behavior from child.

STRICTNESS - The degree to which parents will enforce their rules AND will resist child's attempts to

emotionally coerce parents into not carrying out punishment for misbehavior.

INTRUSIVENESS - The degree to which parents will interfere/control the child's activities & interpersonal

relationships.

RESTRICTIVENESS - The degree to which parents will limit both the range of activities in which the child

can engage and the child's opportunities for independence (engaging in activities

away from parents supervision).

POWER ASSERTION - The degree to which parents will utilize the legitimate power function assigned to

the parental role in order to control the child.

2. PARENTAL AFFECTION

Affection is defined as the amount of love, nurturance, support, and positive value demonstrated

towards the child. The degree of affection demonstrated towards the child may range from love-to-

indifference-to hostility.

3. PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

Involvement is defined as the degree and frequency of interaction between parent and child, the

frequency and quality of communication between parent and child, interest in the activities of the child,

and the quality of interaction between the parent and child. This dimension addresses the frequency/

regularity of interaction, types of mutually-engaged activities , form/style of communication (linear =

Parent to Child/ transactional = bi-directional, parent <---> child).

4. QUALITY OF MARITAL RELATIONSHIP

The Baldwin-Shaeffer model examines the quality of the marital relationship as an indicator of how well the family is functioning. Research evidence indicates that marital discord adversely affects the child and translates into specific child-rearing practices. Conversely, high levels of marital satisfaction and communication will generally result in consistent, positive, and healthy parent-child relationships.

All families organize themselves along the dimensions of affection and control which will result in specific child-rearing techniques/approaches/behaviors. The family will demonstrate a unique pattern of affection, involvement, and supervision/control which will influence both the development and behavior of the child.

AFFECTION is defined as the amount of love, nurturance, support, and positive value demonstrated towards the child. The degree of affection demonstrated towards the child may range from love-to-indifference-to hostility.

INVOLVEMENT is defined as the degree and frequency of interaction between parent and child, the frequency and quality of communication between parent and child, interest in the activities of the child, and the quality of interaction between the parent and child. This dimension addresses the frequency/regularity of interaction, types of mutually-engaged activities , form/style of communication (linear = Parent to Child/ transactional = bi-directional, parent <---> child).

CONTROL is defined in terms of the aforementioned characteristics of parental control, as well as including the degree of supervision/monitoring of the child's activities, the quality, nature, consistency of discipline, and the parent's need to control the child.

BALDWIN-SHAEFFER FAMILY TYPE MATRIX

FAMILY TYPE	AFFECTION	INVOLVEMENT	CONTROL
CONSISTENT DEMOCRATIC	HIGH	HIGH	LOW
INCONSISTENT DEMOCRATIC	HIGH	MODERATE	LOW
PERMISSIVE INDIFFERENT	MODERATELY LOW	LOW	LOW
INDIFFERENT DETACHED	VERY LOW	LOW	LOW
REJECTING NEGLECTING	ABSENT	LOW	VERY LOW
ANTAGONISTIC	ABSENT	LOW	HIGH
AUTHORITARIAN	LOW	HIGH	VERY HIGH
OVERPROTECTIVE	HIGH	VERY HIGH	VERY HIGH
OVERINDULGENT	HIGH	VERY HIGH	MODERATELY HIGH

Central to this family model is the belief that specific parental behavior results in both specific child-rearing techniques and specific emotional and behavioral outcomes in the child. The home climate is determined by the parent's level of affection for the child, his/her level of involvement, and the specific control dimensions/ techniques utilized. The chart below is a useful guide to the understanding of the inter-relationship between parental behavior and its impact on the child.

1. Baumrind (1967;1971;1986;1991) examined the relationship between parental behavior and children's competence. Operationally defined parenting behavior along dimensions of CONTROL, COMMUNICATION, DEMAND FOR MATURITY, & NURTURANCE (AFFECTION/ACCEPTANCE/SUPPORT). Research revealed 3 parent types and subsequent outcome on child’s behavior. Found correlation between parenting style/personality and child’ level of social competence.

This model is predicated on the earlier research of Diane Baumrind (1976). According to Baumrind, parental child rearing practices influence the child's progress towards becoming a capable adult. Parents can foster individuation and psychological maturity by HOW they exercise and demonstrate their authority, their affection for the child, and their interest and involvement with the child.

Research has confirmed that patterns of parental authority can be described in terms of how DEMANDING and RESPONSIVE parents are towards the child. PARENTAL DEMANDINGNESS refers to establishing expectations and rules of conduct for children and monitoring their commitment to these expectations and their compliance with these rules. PARENTAL RESPONSIVENESS refers to being sensitive to children's needs, being supportive of the child's efforts, and being interested in the thoughts, feelings, and activities of the child. Working with these dimensions, Baumrind (1968,1971,1976) was able to demonstrate 3 separate parental styles - AUTHORITATIVE, INDULGENT, AUTHORITARIAN. It was the further work of Macoby & Martin (1983) which identified the NEGLECTING parent style.

AUTHORITATIVE PARENT - These parents are caring and warm, make appropriate demands of the child and execute reasonable punishments for violations of rules. They tend to use inductive discipline which involves explaining the purpose of rules, the costs for violation of the rules, and an openness to discuss and modify the rule. Research has found that children from these homes are self-reliant, socially competent, and report fewer problems.

AUTHORITARIAN PARENT - These parents exercise firm control on the basis of power assertion. They set forth rules in an arbitrary fashion, are more likely to make excessive demands, and to utilize harsh punishments. Often, they believe that children should be in a subordinate role and should have their autonomy severely limited. These parents may be unresponsive to the needs of the child and may be low in affection for the child. Child with authoritarian parents demonstrate lower levels of social competence and self-reliance. Child often wants to avoid the parent from whom he/she feels alienated.

INDULGENT PARENT - These parents are responsive to their children but do not place few demands or restrictions on the child. Parents believe that complete trust in the child and a minimal amount of restrictions is most beneficial to the parent-child relationship. Parent's philosophy is to glorify freedom and to perceive that restrictions limit growth. Children from these homes have been shown to have difficulty with impulsivity and goal setting. They have been found to have more behavior problems and a less positive orientation toward school. They may be more socially competent & self-reliance than children from authoritarian & neglecting homes.

NEGLECTING PARENT - These parents are unresponsive to the needs, feelings, and activities of the child. They exert little control over the child and are disengaged from child rearing responsibilities. These parents are detached from the child, indifferent to his/her needs, display little interest in the child's activities, spends little time in direct interaction with child. Children from these homes have been found to have significantly more problems related to school misconduct, drug use, delinquency, anxiety, depression, and somatic complaints. They were less socially competent, self-reliant, received poorer grades, and have less favorably attitudes toward school.

Beginning with the work of an earlier theorist, three dimensions of parental behavior can be identified (Becker 1964). The warmth versus hostility dimension is defined at the warm end by accepting, affectionate, approving, understanding, child-centered, frequent use of explanation, positive response to dependency behavior, high use of reasons in discipline, high use of praise in discipline, low use of physical punishment, and (for mothers) low criticism of husband. The hostility end of the dimension is defined by the opposite characteristics.

The restrictiveness versus permissiveness dimension is defined at the restrictive end by: many restrictions and strict enforcement of demands in the areas of sex play, modesty behavior, table manners, toilet training, neatness, orderliness, care of household furniture, noise, obedience, aggression to siblings, aggression to peers, and aggression to parents.

Anxious emotional involvement versus calm/detached i defined at the anxious end by high emotionality in relation to child, babying, protectiveness, and solicitousness for the child's welfare.

Anxiety in parents results from many factors, either those directly related to their role as parents or those not connected with their parental role. A mother may be afraid she is not adequately prepared to be a mother. A father may be afraid of what his child will do if he does not let the child know (regularly) who is the boss. A father may be a tyrant with his children because he feels threatened about losing his job at the factory. A mother may be indulgent because she does not want the neighbors to think she is a cruel person.

(1) NEGLECTING PARENTS with low support, low power, and low anxiety are characterized by a lack of concern for their children. They are usually hedonistic and tend to leave children to their own devices. A significant percentage of delinquents come from this type of parent. These parents lack warmth and are either neglectful in exercising parental control or highly inconsistent in the use of discipline. Children raised by overly hostile and restrictive parents are more likely to internalize their own angry feelings. They usually exhibit aggressive and poorly controlled behavior.

(2) RIGID CONTROLLING PARENTS are those who have low support, high power, and low anxiety. They are both restrictive and hostile and tend to produce counter-hostility in their children. Under such conditions, children tend to become neurotic. These children are socially withdrawn, shy, anxious, and highly self-punishing because they cannot express their hostility behaviorally. This combination of low support, high power, and low anxiety fosters resentment and is generally experienced as turmoil.

(3) ANXIOUS NEUROTIC PARENTS are those with low support, low power, and high anxiety. They transfer their anxiety to their children. They were probably the product of rigid controlling or hostile authoritarian parents themselves. Their anxieties are focused inward. They believe the world is out to get them. Children from these homes are motivated toward antisocial behavior; they are socially aggressive and punitive.

(4) HOSTILE AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS are those with low support, high power, and high authority. Like rigid controlling parents, they are restrictive and punitive. Their authoritarianism, however, is primarily a result of anxiety. They are generally frustrated people who try to appease their feelings by striking out at their children. The children of hostile authoritarian parents in general tend to be like those from rigid controlling home especially, socially withdrawn and self-punishing.

(1) OVERPROTECTIVE PARENTS with high support, high power, and high anxiety focus their control on their children's behavior. They are quick to respond to a child's misbehavior. They use the threat of withdrawal of love and other emotional tactics in controlling their child's behavior. Some of these methods may seem irrational, but are more effective than physical punishment. Overprotective parents usually set high standards for their children. Their children are compliant and dependent on their parents for approval. They often have strong consciences to protect themselves from a withdrawal of love.

(2) INDULGENT PARENTS are those with high support, low power, and high anxiety. They set few limits or restrictions. They are quick to remove obstacles from the child's life. but they exert little control. They tend to be warm, supportive and unconditionally accepting. The children from indulgent homes are extremely independent. They are frequently aggressive, not only toward their peers but also toward their parents and other adults. Due to minimal limits on behavior and an unconditional acceptance of the child, the child does not develop a typical conscience, being non-compliant and mischievous.

The two remaining parent types, democratic and organized effective, are better than the other six parent types. Both democratic and organized effective parents are low in anxiety and high in support or love, although the organized effective parent uses high power assertion, while the democratic parent uses power sparingly. They will be discussed in more detail.

(3) DEMOCRATIC PARENTS are those with high support, low power, and low anxiety. They are warm and supportive of their children, and like indulgent parents, use little power and assertion. Behavior limits and ground rules are mutually accepted, set by parents and children. Characteristics of the democratic family is the family council with equal say and power. Democratic and indulgent parents differ as a function of anxiety or emotional involvement. Indulgent parents act in fear, while democratic parents express confidence in their children and reflect an attitude of cooperation.

Democratically raised children are creative and highly independent. Their independence is funded on confidence as opposed to rebellion--expressed by the child from an indulgent home. These children are socially outgoing and accepting of others. Their sense of achievement is based on a self-rewarding structure. Their conscience is usually based on a golden rule philosophy with respect for the rights of others. Democratically raised children are typically friendly, like to do their "own thing," and allow other the same privilege. They have been assigned attributes such as being rowdy and lacking obedience and submissiveness.

(4) THE ORGANIZED EFFECTIVE PARENT has high support, high power, and low anxiety. Their parent-set limits are structured, but unlike the overprotective parent, fewer limits are imposed. These limits are rationally selected for the child's benefit. Organized effective parents are not as intense in response to misbehavior. They are methodical in choosing a course of action, basing their decision on what is best for the child. Organized effective parents are confident, warm, supportive, and success-oriented people.

The characteristics of organized effective children are like those of their parents. They have high achievement striving and are responsible. They lack the independence and creativity of children from more democratic families. Organized effective children have a strong conscience and are compliant and respectful to persons in power or authority. In short, they are more the model child as prescribed by our Western civilization.

	Affection	Authority	Worry
Organized effective	High support	High power	Low anxiety
Overprotective	High support	High power	High anxiety
Rigid controlling	Low support	High power	Low anxiety
Hostile authoritarian	Low support	High power	High anxiety
Neglecting	Low support	Low power	Low anxiety
Anxious neurotic	Low support	Low power	High anxiety

1. Identified 6 parenting styles based upon the behaviors a parent brings to the child rearing situation from those that are a reaction to a child's behavior.

2. These different styles will NOT determine a child's psychological development

3. It is the quality of the match between parenting behaviors and a child's temperament that is DECISIVE.

5. Poorness of fit would occur when parental demands and expectations are excessive and are not compatible with a child's temperament and abilities.

6. Poorness of fit produces stress and often is marked by other developmental problems. Vaughn (1992) found a significant relationship between infant/child's (studied 555 children, 5 months-to-42 months) temperament and security of attachment to parents at all ages.

7. Exact mechanism of how do child's temperament and parental behavior interact and what will be the resulting behavior not completely understood.

SECURE - These parents are confident of their techniques. If they make a mistake, they are able to change their approach with no harm done. They assume they will cope successfully and look on parent as exciting.

INSECURE - This parent believes that everything they do inevitably influences their child's destiny. Often feel overwhelmed by role of parent; anything to do with child perceived as a major stressor. Do not see that when things go well it was partly due to them --> external locus of control.

INTIMIDATED - This parent demonstrates a consistent lack of ability to be firm (strictness) with their children. Motivation to appease children may be fear of doing a "bad job" or "not being loved" by child OR anxiety about role of parent & ability to perform role OR guilt about being firm & denying child's wishes OR stress (role conflict/role overload/role expectation).

OVER-INTERPRETIVE - This parent feels a strong need to analyze and explore every nuance of a child's thoughts, feelings, and actions. Feel compelled to examine in depth the complex psychological meanings and motivations behind their child's behavior.

VICTIMIZED - This parent feels betrayed, unappreciated, and as if life is unfair when things do not work out as planned. They view child's problems/misbehavior as proof of the unfairness of life, especially in light of all that they have sacrificed and done for the child.

PATHOLOGICAL - This parent suffers from some form of mental illness which interferes with their role functions of parent. This person may not be emotionally available to child à may not be able to provide affection, supervision, and interaction.

In his research on parental control techniques, Smith (1988) outlined seven methods of control. He based his model on the observations of 1109 parent-adolescent encounters of 109 mothers and 88 fathers. The methods of control were:

2. COMMANDS: Parent used imperative statements not accompanied by punishment or overt threats

3. LOVE WITHDRAWL: Parent punishes or threatens to punish a child by means of temporary coldness or

4. SELF-ORIENTED INDUCTION: Parent suggested possible gains or costs the child might experience as a result of a choice made or behavior demonstrated.

5. OTHER-ORIENTED INDUCTION: Parent suggested religious/ethical reasons, attraction/approval of others, or

6. ADVICE: Parent suggested to child how he/she may more efficiently, effectively, or easily accomplish what is

7. RELATIONSHIP MAINTENANCE: Parent appeals to the child to maintain positive orientation toward the parent.

The study found that relative frequency of parental control techniques used were:

1. Parental explanations & reasoning (induction) are strongly associated with the child internalizing ethical and moral principles.

2. Use of physical punishment, deprivation, and power assertion (threats) is associated with children's aggression, hostility, and delinquency.

	AUTHORITARIAN	AUTHORITATIVE	PERMISSIVE
CONTROL	HIGH	HIGH	LOW
CLARITY OF COMMUNICATION	LOW	HIGH	HIGH
MATURITY DEMANDS	HIGH	HIGH	LOW
NURTURANCE	LOW	HIGH	HIGH