Professional Ethics for Scientists
Annotated Bibliography

The annotated bibliography below was created for the advanced writing course Professional Ethics for Scientists, WRIT 335 / CHEM 301, by Dr. Linda M. Sweeting, Department of Chemistry. The bibliography is organized by course topic, as described by the detailed outline below. The syllabus has the current schedule, assignments and grading.

To find references on a particular topic, either:

• Go down a few lines to "Types of References" and select the kind of information desired. Internet, Journal, Society gives links to other sites and periodical titles, the Course Topics and Outline has a short description of the course with links to annotated book and article references, Novels and (Auto)Biographies lists such books raising ethical issues in science, and Writing Tips has grammar style essays and manuals, both general and scientific.
  OR

  Use Edit, Find in Page in the command line for Netscape or MS Internet Explorer and enter the keyword or author you want.

Note that not all books and journals are available in the Towson State Library. You can check availability through Victor from any computer on the campus network.

The letters coding the sections in the course outline - A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I - are ALSO used:

• in the course schedule, to link it to the outline;
• in the reference lists, to classify the references by topic;
• within each reference annotation, to indicate the range of topics for each book and article.

1. Web sites.
2. Robin Levin Penslar, Research Ethics: Cases and Materials, Indiana Univ Press, Bloomington, 1995. This interesting book begins with a brief summary basic ethical theories and some suggestions about ways to teach ethics. The majority of the book is dedicated to sets of case studies about situations raising ethical issues in research, with special emphasis on the natural sciences (mostly biology and biochemistry), psychology and history. The cases are accompanied by questions and discussion. Covers most the major issues encountered in academic research. ABCGH
3. Stanley G. Korenman and Allan C. Shipp, Teaching the Responsible Conduct of Research through a Case Study Approach: A Handbook for Instructors, American Assoc of Medical Colleges, Washington DC 1994. The book covers all aspects of misconduct in science from a medical perspective, including animal and human subjects and genetic information. ABG
4. Francis L. Macrina, Research Integrity: An Introductory Text with Cases, ASM Press, Washington, DC 1995. Although the text focuses on the research environment in universities for biomedicine, the principles are broadly applicable: Included are scientific data integrity, mentoring, record-keeping, authorship and peer review, conflict of interest, ownership of data and intellectual property, genetic technology, use of animals and humans in biomedical experimentation. ABCDEG
5. Edward Erwin, Sidney Gendin and Lowell Kleinman, Ethical issues in scientific research: an anthology, Garland, NY, 1994. Collected for a course like those required by NIH, the articles discuss values, fraud, animal and human experiments, genetic research and political and sociological influences on science. ABCD (already in with a missing author)
6. Robin Levin Penslar, ed., Research Ethics Cases and Materials, Indiana U. Press, 1995. Covers plagiarism, confidentiality, conflict of interest, fraud, misconduct, reporting of data, human and animal subjects. BCDG
7. F. Gifford, "Teaching Scientific Integrity", The Centennial Review, 1994, 38, 297 - 314.
8. Judy E. Stern and Deni Elliott, The Ethics of Scientific Research: A Guidebook for Course Development, Univ. Press of New England, Dartmouth, NH, 1997. A book for potential teachers of ethics in science, with bibliography and videography. AD
9. R. Downie, "The teaching of bioethics in higher education of biologists", J. Biological Education, 1993, 27, 34 - 38. AG
10. E. J. Kormondy, "Ethics and values in the biology classroom", The American Biology Teacher, 1990, 52, 403 - 407. AG
11. Deborah Campero Clark, "Social Issues and Genetic Testing: A Case Study Using Advocacy Groups", J. College Science Teaching", 1997, Sept/Oct, 17 - 20. A description of a teaching method using case studies and student arguing positions regarding what to do about an ability to detect sensitivity to cigarette smoke. AG
12. Caroline Whitbeck, "Teaching Ethics to Scientists and Engineers: Moral Agents and Moral Problems", Science and Engineering Ethics, 1995, 1(3), 299 - 308. By treating ethical problems like design problems, she avoids the idea that ethical problems are mutiple choice, and impresses upon students that ambiguity persists in both design and moral problems. A
13. Penny J. Gilmer, "Teaching Science at the University Level: What About the Ethics?", Sci.Engin. Ethics, 1995, 1(2), 173 - 180. A description of a pioneering science, technology and society course which includes misconduct in science, societal impacts, human subjects, etc. ABG
14. Institute for Chemical Education, Scientific Ethics for High School Students, ICE, Dept of Chemistry, U of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. Uses case studies to stimulate discussions about data collection, laboratory safety, computer ethics, working with others. ABCD
15. Linda M. Sweeting, "Ethics in Science for Undergraduate Students", J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76(3), 369 - 372. A description of this course -- find out why I did it and what's in it for me. ABCDEFG
16. J. Howard Rytting and Richard L. Schowen, "Issues in Scientific Integrity: A Practical Course for Graduate Students in the Chemical Sciences", J. Chem. Educ., 1998, 75, 1317 - 1320. The scientist in the laboratory, as a reviewer, author, grantee, employer/employee, and citizen. ABCDEF
17. Joseph F. Bunnett, "The Culture of Chemistry: A Graduate Course", J. Chem. Educ., 1999, 76, 1058 -1061. How to make discoveries, be ethical, deal with mistakes, develop your career in academia or industry. ABCDE
18. Anne E. Moody and R. Griffith Freeman, "Chemical Safety and Scientific Ethics in a Sophomore Chemistry Seminar", J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 1224 - 1225. Another way to include ethics in the curriculm, as part of a seminar course, combined with the very much related issues of safety. AB
19. Paul M. Treichel, "Ethical Conduct in Science -- the Joys of Teaching and the Joys of Learning", J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 1327 - 1329. A series of quizzes with an ethical slant led to creative writing. A
20. Thomas A. Easton, ed. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Science, Technology and Society, Dushkin/McGraw-Hill, Ny, 2000. Twos sider presented for each question. Text, internet site and instructor's manual. Topics: science and technology in society, the environment, health, space, the computer revolution and ethics (animals, genetic engineering, tissue sales, cloning). Are there only two sides??? AFG

1. Introductory and General Books

Philosophy and Ethics

1. Robert L. Holmes, Basic Moral Philosophy, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1993. Models that have been and are now used by philosophers to understand and codify the moral sense. The historical information included in the chapters on each approach to a fundamental model is helpful. ABCDEF
2. C. E. Harris, Jr., Applying Moral Theories, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1992. Basic philosophical approaches to resolving ethical dilemmas. Organized by fundamental models and illustrated with modern case studies illustrating complex ethical dilemmas. ABCDEF
3. Vincent Ryan Ruggiero, Thinking Critically About Ethical Issues, 4th ed, Mayfield Publishing, Mountain View, C, 1996A. This book begins by analyzing feelings, conscience and cultural differences, then discusses criteria for morals, ideals, and responsibility to assemble a rational basis for moral actions and responsibility. It also examines professional ethics codes and hundreds of modern ethical controversies, including some in science and medicine and has a section on how to write about moral issues. IIA,G, IV
4. Robert Kane, Through the Moral Maze: Searching for Absolute Values in a Pluralistic World, North Castle Books, Pantheon, NY, 1994. An philosophical examination of moral foundations underlying the diversity of culture, including religious, gender, political diversity. A
5. Sissela Bok, Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life, Pantheon Books, New York, 1978. A profound and engaging analysis of a subject neglected by the philosophers, who are busy arguing about truth. The reasons for lying are unmasked and the consequences examined. You will never accept expert opinion so easily again, nor will you lie easily to others. ABCDEF
6. Marcia Bacon, The Moral Status of Loyalty, IIT CSEP ISBN 0-8403-3423-0
7. John Rajchman, Truth and Eros: Foucault, Lacan and the Question of Ethics, Routledge, 1991. Recommended by another ethics in science instructor. Sounds forbidding. A
8. Mary F. Belenky, Blythe M. Clinchy, Nancy R. Goldberger and Jill M. Tarule, Women'e Ways of Knowing, Basic Books, New York, 1986. ACD
9. Nell Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, University of California, Berkeley, 1984. AD
10. Albert Rothenberg, The Emerging Goddess. The Creative Process in Art, Science and Other Fields, A
11. Michael Pritchard, On Becoming Responsible, University Press of Kansas, A book that searches for applications of moral principles to ethical issues in everyday life. A
12. Richard A. Wasserstrom, Today's Moral Problems, Macmillan, NY. An old philosophy text that has excellent discussions of abortion, racism, sexism, punishment, etc. Focussed on the world at large rather than the research environment. A
13. Mike W. Martin, Everyday Morality: An Introduction to Applied Ethics, Wadsworth Pub. Belmont, CA, 1995. A text for ethics courss with an emphasis on the practical, e.g. character, conduct and ethical theories, respect for others, sexual and caring relationships, animals and the environment. A
14. Joseph Ellin, Morality and the Meaning of Life: An Introduction to Ethical Theory, Harcourt Brace, 1995. A
15. Nina Rosenstand, The Moral of the Story: An Introduction to Ethics, 2nd ed., Mayfield Publishing, Mountain View, CA. Ethics is introduced with the plots of movies, novels, short stories and TV shows; others reappear in illustrative boxes throughout the book. The book covers the major ethical theories: utilitarianism, Kant's deontology, Aristotle's virtue theory, religion and values, feminist approaches, etc. A
16. Peter Vardy and Paul Grosch, The Puzzle of Ethics, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY, 1997. Includes major philosophers, human and animal rights and environmental ethics. A
17. Judith A. Boss, Ethics for Life: An Interdisciplinary and Multicultural Introduction, Mayfield Press, Mountain View, CA, 1998. This book does more than summarize the views of philosophers through history - it explicitly considers the origins of ethics and whether it is relative to the culture or the religion or is universal. It is in the universality discussion that the concepts of the great philosophers are introduced. A
18. Anthony Weston, A Practical Companion to Ethics, Oxford Univ Press, 1996. Practical instruction in problem-solving, the kinds of practical intelligence needed to make moral judgements. A
19. Willima K. Frankena, Ethics, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1988. Excellent basic reference guide to deontological, utilitarian and virtue theories and meta-ethical issues. Very short. A
20. James Rachels, Elements of Moral Philosophy, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, NY, 1993. Systematic introduction to relativism, subjectivism, egoism, utilitarianism, deontology and virtue, with examples. A
21. Anthony Weston, A 21^st Century Ethical Toolbox, Oxford U Press, 2001. A practical approach to ethics that does not begin with Aristotle but with "The need for open minds (ethics as a learning experience)" and ends with "Integrating environmental values", discussing critical thinking, creativity and putting ethics into action along the way. Intresting readings included. AGH
22. Edmund G. Seebauer and Robert L. Barry, Fundamentals of Ethics for Scientists and Engineers, Oxford U Press, 2000. From analysis of interior intentions and exterior acts, the book goes on to consider way of resolving ethical conflicts, evaluating moral judgements and finding justice. Advanced topics include how habits affect ethics, resource allocation, public safety / risk and multicultural issues. A

The Nature of Science and the Philosophy of Science

23. Peter B. Medawar, The Limits of Science, Harper and Row, NY, 1984. AB
24. Peter B. Medawar, The Art of the Soluble, Methuen, London, 1967. A series of lectures, essays and book reviews; see "Two Conceptions of Science" and "Hypothesis and Imagination". A
25. John Hatton and Paul B. Plouffe, Science and its Ways of Knowing, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1997. A collection of short essays on the nature of science by both scientists and science-watchers, with questions for discussion. A
26. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed., Chicago U. Press, Chicago, 1962, 1970. This famous book distinguishes normal science (data collection, adding to the evidence) from revolutionary science, in which a complete change in fundamental outlook, or paradigm, occurs. The classical examples of paradigm shift are Newtonian to quantum mechanics, and the origins of the concepts of continental drift and evolution. Chemistry could perhaps claim a paradigm shift in the concept that structure determines reactivity. A
27. Robert K. Merton, "The Normative Structure of Science", The Sociology of Science, Chicago Univ. Press, 1973. A
28. Evelyn Fox Keller and Helen E. Longino, eds. Feminism and Science, Oxford Univ Press, 1996. A collection of 17 readings from feminist writers questioning the practice and goals of science. ACDE
29. Stephen Carey, A Beginner's Guide to the Scientific Method, Wadsworth, B. Barber and H. Walter, eds, Sociology of Science, Free Press, Glencoe, IL 1962. Readings about the social structure of science, the process of discovery, and the relationship and responsibility of science and society and how science differs from pseudoscience. Aimed at the non-scientist. ABCDEF
30. Stephen Brush, "Should the History of Science be Rated X?", Science, 1974, 183. AB
31. Alan Cromer, Uncommon Sense. The Heretical Nature of Science, Oxford U. Press, 1993. An analysis of the history and present state of science, both good and bad, is presented to explain how it works. ABF
32. Paul R. Gross, Norman Levitt and Martin W. Lewis, eds, The Flight from Science and Reason, New York Academy of Sciences, Johns Hopkins Univ Press, Baltimore, MD 1997. Papers from a conference about the failure of reason to dominate in public judgements. Uneven in focus on the issues, often defensive - the reviewer liked the paper by Goodstein and not much else. AF
33. Max Perutz, Is Science Necessary?, Oxford Univ. Press, 1991. A collection of essays from a thoughtful and famous pioneer in molecular biology.
34. W. I. B. Beveridge, Seeds of Discovery: The Logic, Illogic, Seredipity, and Sheer Chance of Scientific Discovery, Beveridge, 1980? AB
35. Kim Sterelny and Paul E. Griffiths, Sex and Death. An Introduction to Philosophy of Biology, Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1999. The basic unifying principles of biology or the big issues -- the nature of life, genes, speciation, adaptation, biodiversity, etc. -- are considered in the development of a theoretical biology which includes the controversies about such things as nature vs nurture. 456 pp. AG
36. Mihaly T. Beck and George B. Kauffman, "Scientific Methodology and Ethics in University Education", J. Chem. Educ. 1994, 71, 922 - 924. Personal vs objective knowledge, science as facts and a way of knowing, plus ethics. A
37. Brian L. Silver, The Ascent of Science, Oxford Univ Press, NY, 2000. From the advertisement: "vivid accounts of major scientific battles and the ways in which science has affected our view of the world and ourselves.. two objectives: to put science in its social perspective and to explain the basic meaning of great scientific discoveries." AF
38. Peter Pesic, Labyrinth: A Search for the Hidden Meaning of Science, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 2000. An analysis of the discussions of the relationship of religion, philosophy and science in the 17^th century. A

Ethics in Academia and Learning Ethics

39. Walter J. Deal, "Cheating", J. Chem. Educ. 1984, 61, 797. Questionnaires to students in introductory chemistry courses reveal that 81% have seen cheating in the lab in that course! AB
40. Donald L. McCabe, "Faculty Resonses to Academic Dishonesty: The Influence of Student Honor Codes", Res. Higher Educ., 1993(5), 34, 647 - 657.
41. Donald L. McCabe, "The Influence of Situational Ethics on Cheating Among College Students", Sociol. Inquiry, 1992, 62(3), 365 - 374.
42. Michael Davis, "Ethics Across the Curiculum: Teaching Professional Responsibility in Technical Courses", Teaching Philosophy, 1993, 16(3), 163 - 186.
43. Jeffrey Kovac, "Scientific Ethics in Chemical Education", J. Chem. Educ., 1996, 73, 926 - 928, and "Ethics in the Science Curriculum", presented at the 1996 Conference on Values in Higher Education, Ethics and the College Curriculum: Teaching and Moral Responsibility, April 11 - 13, 1996. Ethics means: 1, ordinary morality; 2, the study of ethical theory and 3, professional ethics. Professional ethics derives from 2 bargains - internal (among the members of the profession) and external (with society), which include the concept of service. Both bargains depend on trust. Lots of good references. A
44. Brian P. Coppola and David H. Smith, "A Case for Ethics", J. Chem. Educ., 1996, 73, 33 - 34. A justification and suggestions for integrating ethics into the curriculum in science. A
45. Penny J. Gilmer, "Teaching Science at the University Level: What about the Ethics?" Sci. Eng. Ethics, 1995, 1(2), 173 - 180. Ethics is incorporated into a course in science, technology and society. A
46. R. E. Bulger, "The Need for an Ethical Code for Teachers of Basic Biomedical Sciences", J. Medical Education, 1988, 63, 131 - 133. AGI
47. D. Callahan and S. Bok, eds., Ethics Teaching in Higher Education, Plenum, NY, 1980. What kinds of goals and courses exist elsewhere? A series of articles by a variety of experts, e.g. Thomas Lickona, "What Does Moral Psychology Have to Say to Teachers of Ethics?", A
48. "Plagiarism" Perspectives on the Professions, CSEP, IIT, Chicago, IL. A whole issue of their newsletter dedicated to this topic, including the composition classroom, law (where it is encouraged?), science. ACDE.
49. Marego Athans, "Teachers give grading policy an "F": 2 Baltimore County instructors quit over pressure to promote", Baltimore Sun, 1996, August 25, 1A, 4A. Junior teachers judged excellent by their peers quit because they were pressured to improve the grades, either by just adjusting them or by finding alternate ways to teach and evaluate students so that all succeed. A former PTA president supported one, because failing her grandson made everyone aware that he wasn't doing his homework - once he started doing it, he got A's. Was the supervisor unethical in pressuring for grades without performance or the teacher irresponsible for not trying harder? ADE
50. L. A. Bisbee, "Ethics in the science classroom" J. College Science Teaching, 1994, 24, 132 - 134. A
51. Patricia Keith-Spregel et al, The Ethics of Teaching: A Casebook, Department of Psychological Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, 1993.
A long pamphlet explaining how senior faculty can assist junior scientists develop their careers. Level is pretty superficial and ethics barely mentioned. AD
52. Sidney Hook, Paul Kurtz, Miro Todorovich, The Ethics of Teaching and Scientific Research, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY 1977.
53. Sally S. Wright, Publish and Perish, Multnomah, Sisters, OR.
54. J. Dudley Herron, The Chemistry Classroom - Formulas for Successful Teaching, American Chemical Society, Washington DC 1996. There is a whole chapter on ethics in teaching. ADE
55. Adviser, Teacher, Role Model, Friend. On Being a Mentor to Students in Science and Engineering, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1997. This short booklet advises teachers, especially at the graduate level, on how they can assist students in developing their career. Most of the recommendations seem a bit obvious, but perhaps they needed to be said. ADE
56. Jeffrey Mervis, "Graduate Educators Struggle to Grade Themselves", Science, 2000, 287, 568 - 570. Graduate progams rate each other by research reputation, but that is not all students need to know to choose a graduate school. How can they be rated on the educational experience of the students? ACDE
57. Jeff Gottlieb, LA Times, "Web site holds honesty lesson for students", Baltimore Sun, Jan 24, 2000, C1, C4. Professors fight back with a site that allows professors to submit student papers for comparison with the on-line plagiarized papers. AB

The life of a scientist

58. On Being a Scientist: Responsible Conduct in Research, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1989. A pamphlet covering many of the basic issues of scientific life. ABC
59. On Becoming a Scientist: Responsible Conduct in Research, 2nd Edition, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1995. Second edition of a pamphlet describing the mores of the scientific community. ABC
60. Jacob Bronowski, Science and Human Values, Messner, NY. 1956. A philosophical yet practical discussion of the origins of values in science and their impact on society. See exp. 75ff, 85. AF
61. Donald Braben, To Be a Scientist, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK, 1994. The author was responsible for funding highly exploratory research and presents an interesting discussion of strategies of success in research (including choosing a problem) and an analysis of the effect of science on the economy and vice-versa. He tries to show what turns people on about doing science, but his contacts are hardly typical. ABEF
62. Larry Laudan, Science and Values, U of California Press, Berkeley, A
63. William T. Lowrance, Modern Science and Human Values, Oxford U Press, NY, 1985. Lots of discussion, but not many real insights, according to the reviewer. A
64. Keith J. Laidler, To Light Such a Candle: Chapters in the History of Science, Oxford Univ Press, NY, 1998. Case studies in the history of science with attention to the imperfect people that made discoveries and invented technologies, including some women. He connects pure research and applications and show how impossible it would be to predict the outcome of basic research. ACDEF
65. Robin Dunbar, The Trouble with Science, Harvard Univ Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997. The author (an anthropologist) considers the case for science being just another social construction, but apparently gives a good defense of and description of the society of scientists. ABCDEF

Professional Ethics for Scientists

66. C. Ian Jackson and John Prados, Honor in Science, Sigma Xi, Research Triangle Park, NC 1986. A serious short discussion of basic scientific ethics aimed at junior scientists but a reminder to all. AB
67. C. I. Jackson and J. W. Prados, "Honor in Science", Amer. Sci., 1983, 71, 462 - 464. Precursor to the book(let). ABC
68. M. C. LaFollete, ed., Quality in Science, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1982. ABCDEF
69. Mike Muller, "Why Scientists Don't Cheat", New Scientist,1977 (June 2), 74, 522 - 523. AB
70. Richard S. Nicholson, "On Being a Scientist", Science, 1989, 242, 305. A
71. H. Zuckerman, "Norms and Deviant Behavior in Science", Sci. Technol. and Human Values, 1984, 9, 7 - 13. AB
72. Kristin Shrader-Frechette, Ethics of Scientific Research, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, MD 1994. A foundation for consideration of ethical issues specific to science. Scientists have a duty to do research; it ought not to be biased, to endanger unnecessarily people or the environment, to use public funds for profit or to fail to receive informed consent. Research ought to be objective, promote the public good and serve the values of a liberal society. ABDFG
73. Charles E. Reagan, Ethics for Scientific Researchers, 2nd ed., Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1971. The first part of this book is a summary and criticism of normative ethical theory, meta-ethics, and concepts of freedom. It is clearly written but requires the scientist to learn a lot of philosophy in 70 pages. The second part of the book is a series of short case studies in medicine and psychology with references. The final 60 pages is a good annotated bibliography which refers to a very wide variety of sources, most of which are from the early 1960's. AFG
74. Bentley Glass, "The Ethical Basis of Science", Science, 1965, 150, 1254 - 1261. A philosophical foundation with some practical examples. ABCDF
75. Gerald Holton, "Niels Bohr and the Integrity of Science", American Scientist,1986, 74, 237 - 243. ABCDEF
76. James Woodward and David Goodstein, "Conduct, Misconduct and the Structure of Science", Amer Sci. 1996, 84, 479 - 490. The authors point out the logical inconsistencies in expectations of ideal behavior by scientists, e.g. that scientists should not be motivated by personal gain. They confuse moral standards (which are aspirational) with psychological motivation, in my opinion. Still an anteresting article. ABCDE
77. Sidney Hook, Paul Kirtz and Miro Todorovich, The Ethics of Teaching and Scientific Research, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1977. ABCDE
78. C. P. Snow, "The Moral Un-Neutrality of Science", Science Digest, 1961, 49, 19 - 24. He argues that science is not morally neutral and has an obligation to explain the consequences of proposed actions. A
79. William O. Baker, "The Moral Un-Neutrality of Science", Science, 1961, 133, 261 - 263. Public morality determines what a scientist may and may not do, and scientists need to gain the trust of the public. AF
80. Lawrence Cranberg, "Ethical Problems of Scientists", Amer. Sci., 1965, 53(3), 303A - 304A. Scientists are urged to examine the ethical codes of other professions and develop one for science by discussion of 10 examples. ABC
81. Deni Elliott and Judy E. Stern, eds. Research Ethics: A Reader, Univ.Press of New England, Hanover, NH, 1997. An overview with essays, case studies: reporting and funding of research, conflicts of interest, human and animal experiments, data ownership, data sharing, authorship and institutional responsibility for dealing with misconduct. ABCDE
82. Stephanie Bird, "Setting Ethical Standards in Science: The Role of Science Professionals", AWIS Magazine, 1995, 24(2) 14 - 15. Ifd not scientists, who will? Some examples of ongoing activities. AFI
83. Seymour J. Garte, "Guidelines for Training in the Ethical Conduct of Scientific Research", Sci. Engin. Ethics, 1995, 1, 59 - 70. A guide to what a young research should know about: breaches of ethics, Data collection, records and ownership, confidentiality, communication, authorship, collaboration, and reporting unethical conduct. ABCDE
84. Harold Hillman, "Honest Research", Sci. Engin. Ethics, 1995, 1, 49 - 58. Instructions to supervisors, research workers, referees, authors for the design, implemetation, analysis, interpretation and publication of research with maximal intellectual integrity. ABCDE
85. David B. Resnik, The Ethics of Science, An Introduction, Routledge, New York, 1998.
86. Ruth E. Bulger, Elizabeth Heitman and Stanley J. Reiser, eds., The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological Sciences, Cambridge U. Press, New York, 1993. The ethical basis of science, self-deception, guidelines for authorship, fraud and some specific examples -- a collection of readings with an introduction to each group by the editors. BCDEFG
87. Jeffrey Kovac, "Professionalism and Ethics in Chemistry", Foundations of Chemistry An analysis of chemistry as a profession based on categories by Stokes -- chemists are primarily in "Pasteur's quadrant", basic research with the purpose of practical applications, requiring moral and ethical commitments akin to those of engineering as well as the research commitment to truth. AF
88. E. G. Seebauer and R. L. Barry, Fundamentals of Ethics for Scientists and Engineers, Oxford U. Press, 2000. A non-stuffy approach to ethics, with case studies (some analyzed) and very little reference to famous philosophers and lots to practical situations scientists find themselves in, although it includes a section on ethical systems. Not much on ensuring the integrity of the research literature. ABCDEFG

Professional Ethics

89. Ruth Chadwick, ed,Ethics and the Professions, Ashgate Pub, Brookfield, VT 1994. Examines both theory and practice from perspectives of law, social work, medicine and philosophy. How accountability defines professional ethics and the meaning and finctions of codes of conduct. AEFG
90. Daryl Koehn, The Ground of Professional Ethics, Routledge, NY, 1994. The professional - client relationship should be a covenant based on trust with good as its goal. Specific topics are addressed such as professional-client privilege using law, medicine and the ministry as examples. AG
91. Albert Flores, ed, Professional Ideals, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1988. A collection of essays on what it means to be a professional in a variety of fields such as law, education and medicine, plus the importance of codes, collegiality, etc. ABCDE
92. Joseph R. DesJardins and John J. McCall, Contemporary Issues in Business Ethics, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1990. In addition to a discussion of ethical theory and loyalty, this book discusses worker and public health and safety and may be quite relevant for a science major. ABCDEF
93. Michael D. Bayles, Professional Ethics, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1989. A text to supplement courses in business and engineering ethics, which discusses a variety of professions. A
94. H. Margenau, Open Vistas, Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1961. Discusses science and human affairs, reason, esthetics and relativity, materialism, determinism and freedom. A
95. Sandra W. Pyke and Neil McK. Agnew, The Science Game: An Introduction to Research in the Social Sciences, 5th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991. Perhaps not relevant to most biological and physical scientists. A
96. Peter Sacks, Generation X Goes to College. An Eye-Opening Account of Teaching in Postmodern America, Open Court Publishing, 1996. A professor gives up educational goals to succeed in entertaining his students and thus becoming a success as a professor. Is his characterization of today's students and colleges correct? A
97. Banks McDowell, Ethics and Excuses: The Crisis in Professional Responsibility, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, CT, 2000. For professionals in all fields, especially those in business (almost all) - "challenging and provocative, yet sympathetic and reassuring". A

2. Scientists and their Experiments
Doing and Publishing Science
1. W. I. B. Beveridge, The Art of Scientific Investigation, 3rd Ed., Vintage Books, NY, 1957. B
2. E. Emmet Reid, Invitation to Chemical Research, Franklin Pub., Palisade, NJ 1961. AB
3. Howard M. Kanare, Writing the Laboratory Notebook, American Chemical Society Washington, DC, 1985. An excellent practical guide for how to record and certify your data to ensure that your experiments can be reported accurately. B
4. Henry H. Bauer, Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method, Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1992. The author attempts to debunk the conventional wisdom about what science is and what the public needs to know about it. A
5. E. Bright Wilson, An Introduction to Scientific Research, McGraw-Hill, NY, 1952. Ethics is not discussed explicitly, but standards for experimental design, execution, analysis, credit and publication are presented in detail - completely relevant to today. ABCD
6. Peter B. Medawar, Advice to a Young Scientist, Harper and Row, NY, 1979. How to choose a research topic and collaborators; good manners, good science and their rewards; philosophical foundations and implications. Very British and very old-boy. ABCDE
7. Stephen S. Carey, A Beginner's Guide to the Scientific Method, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1994. For the non-scientist. Much that is predictable, but some good examples and questions that test your critical skills and estimating ability. ABF
8. Frederick Grinnell, The Scientific Attitude, 2nd ed., Guilford Press, London/ New York, 1992. How to do science and be a professional scientist, from a cell biologist's point of view. The scientific method is influenced by thought style, scientific social interactions, and the everyday world. Examples of method, ethics and misconduct from biomedical research. Thorough but dry. ABG
9. D. E. Chubin, "Allocating Credit and Blame in Science", Sci., Technol. Human Values, 1988, 13, 53 - 63. BC
10. Brian Schrag, ed. Research Ethics: Fifteen Cases and Commentaries, Vol. 1, Association for Practical and Professional Ethics, Bloomington, IN 1997.
11. Brian Schrag, ed. Research Ethics: Cases and Commentaries, Vol. 2, Association for Practical and Professional Ethics, Bloomington, IN 1998.
12. Peter Wilmshurst, "The Code of Silence", The Lancet, 1997, 349, 567- 569. He visited some of the labs when scientists (e.g. Slutsky) were actively fabricating data and found that they were not very secretive and that most people were aware that something was amiss, yet other scientists concealed the truth, protected them from exposure to the funding agency or the public. This must change. BC

Publication and Peer Review

13. "Ethical Guidelines to Publication of Chemical Research", Acc. Chem. Res. 1994, 27, 179 - 181. Also published in The ACS Style Guide (below). CDF
14. John C. Bailar, III, et al, the Editorial Policy Committee, Ethics and Policy in Scientific Publication, Council of Biology Editors, Bethesda, MD 1990. A statement of policy and the proceedings of a meeting. GI
15. Keith Stewart Thomson, "The Literature of Science", Amer. Sci., 1984, 72, 185 - 187. BC
16. A. G. Wheeler, "The pressure to publish promotes disreputable science", The Scientist, July 10, 1989, 11, 13. BCD
17. Edward R. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT, 1983. This book became an instant classic. It analyzes both excellence and cynical misrepresentation in presentation of data in graphs and tables. Wonderful examples from all ages and all parts of the world and all kinds of publications. A must-read for anyone who has ever created a graph from a computer. BF
18. Edward R. Tufte, Envisioning Information, Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT, 1990. More examples of excellence in graphic design. Less relevant to science than the 1983 book, but still an inspiration. BF
19. Edward Tufte. Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative, Graphics Press, CT, 1997. This is his third book on representing data efficiently and precisely. This one focusses on representing motion and change and presents examples of excellence, ineffectiveness and disinformation as part of the story. He includes computer representations as well as paper ones this time. BF
20. Donald Kennedy, On Academic Authorship, Stanford Univ. 1985. Publish or perish? The author, president of Stanford, apparently used federal funds to pay for his wedding reception - and caused an audit of the University (not in the book). C
21. James S. Dodd, ed., The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors, Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC, 1986. Includes copyright information and the Ethical Guidelines for Authors, Editors and Reviewers. BCD
22. Howard J. Sanders, "Peer Review: How Well Is It Working?", Chem Eng. News, 1982 (Mar 15), 60, 32 - 43. C
23. Ron Dagani, "New journal forgoes traditional peer review", Chem. Eng. News, 1995 (May 22), 26 - 27. An iconoclast proposes to publish paper based on track record (prior numbers of publications), omitting any peer review (and saving time) and trusting the authors to get it right because they are good. Note that a physics group does this on-line. C
24. Steven Bachrach et al, "Who Should Own Scientific Papers?", Science, 1998, 281 1459 - 1460. A groups of scientists has formally challenged the insistence of journals on ownership of the copyright of articles they publish using precedent and proposing alternatives. BCDE
25. Floyd E. Bloom, "The Rightness of Copyright", Science, 1998, 281 1451. Editor Bloom argues that ownership of copyright by journals preserves the literature. BCDE
26. Drummond Rennie, "Editors and Auditors", New England Journal of Medicine, 1989, 321, 2543 - 2545. An alternative to ensuring the integrity of the scientific literature? CG
27. Jukka Liedes, "Copyright: Evolution Not Revolution", Science, 1997, 276, 223 - 225. The Internet has made copyright violation so easy internationally that revisions are necessary to treaties. Will any rights to copy anything remain? BF
28. B. Barber, "Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery", Science, 1961, 134, 596 - 602. How resistant are we to new ideas? AB
29. Stephen R. Grabard and Paul LeClerc, eds, Books, Bricks and Bytes: Libraries in the Twenty-First Century, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ, 1998. A collection of essays to mark the centennial of the NY Public Library has some interesting stuff about how information is likely to be transfered in the future and the implications for ownership. BG
30. Constance Holden, "NEJM Admits Breaking Its Own Tough Rules", Science, 2000, 287, 1573 and LA Times and J. Bor, "Medical Journal admits, apologizes for ethical lapses", Baltimore Sun, 2000, Feb 24. The New England Journal of Medicine allowed -- encouraged -- medical experts to write articles evaluating protocols for certain diseases without disclosing their significant conflicts of interest. Later articles corrected the problem, listing 20 affiliations with drug companies per author. B
31. William Schultz, "Science Strikes Deal With Celera Over Paper", Chem. Eng. News, 2000, Dec 18, 5-6. Science requires that all DNA data on which papers published in the journal is based be placed in a publically accessible database. However, to gain the rights to publish the human genome work of Celera Genomics, the waived this requirement. The leaders of the public human genome project have announced they will NOT publish in Science as a result. BF
32. Eliot Marshall, "Storm Erupts over Terms for Publishing Celera's Sequence", Science, 2000, 290, 2042-3. Science's version of the decision to publish with depositing the sequence in a databank "It was a tough call". BF
33. Sophie Wilkinson "Preprint Policy", Chem. Eng. News, 2001, Jan 15, 10. The editors of the American Chemical Society's journals have agreen that web publication constitutes prior publication and they will not accept papers previously broadcast in this manner, although sharing with selected colleagues is fine. B
34. Jonathan Krensky, "Don't tease", Chem. Eng. News, 2000, Dec 18, 2. The gentleman's agreement to provide details / raw data / materials from published papers is not honored. BF
35. Eliot Marshall, "A Ruckus Over Releasing Images of the Human Brain", Science, 2000, 289, 1458 - 9. Publishers are now requesting raw data from functional MRI and CT scans be deposited with encryption in a database as part of the conditions for publications and scientists are fuming, as they want to mine their own data further. BF
36. Lee Rowen, Gane K. S. Wong, Robert P. Lane, Leroy Hood, "Publication Rights in the Era of Open Data Release Policies", Science, 2000, 289, 1881. How do you protect the careers of the producers of data from its mining by others once it is published and deposited in a databank. Some suggestions for qualifiers in the databases, for example, to improve fairness. B
37. David Malakoff, "Librarians Seek to Block Merger of Scientific Publishing Giants", Science, 2000, 290, 910-911. The two largest private publishers of scientific research (and with the highest prices already) propose to merge to give a company with over 1500 journals, a action which may result in libraries having to cancel more journals because of cost. B
38. Antonio Galvez, Mercedes Maqueda, Mauel Martinez-Bueno and Eva Valdivia, "Scientific Publication Trends and the Developing World", Amer. Sci., 2000, 88, 526- . An examination of the development of science around the world using publication and citation criteria. BC

Error

39. Lewis Branscomb, "Integrity in Science", Amer. Sci. 1985, 73, 421 - 423. Self-deception is a bigger problem than fraud. BC
40. Joseph Jastrow, The Story of Human Error, Appleton-Century-Croft, New York, 1936. B
41. Daniel W. Hering, Foibles and Fallacies of Science; an account of scientific vagaries, Van Nostrand, New York, 1924. The incidents discussed are "ancient history", including astrology, divination, transmutation of metals. B
42. Herbert L. Nichols, Science Blundering: an outsider's view, North Castle, Greenwich, CT, 1984
43. Keith J. Laidler, "Lessons from the History of Science", Accts Chem. Res.1995, 28, 187 - 192. The uneven "progress" of science is illustrated with examples theories accepted in spite of poor correlation with data and the wrong person getting the credit for discoveries. ABC
44. Gary Taubes, "The (Political) Science of Salt", Science, 1998, 281, 898 - 907. The claim that salt is "bad" for you, is exaggerated. There is little evidence that salt intake is related to increased risk of high blood pressure. The myth is politically entrenched now, and pressure to correct the official advice falls on deaf ears. BG
45. Charles Sife, "CERN's Gamble Shows Perils, Rewards of Playing the Odds", Science, 2000, 289, 2260-2. Faced with shutdown, CERN scientists discover a new particle ... but they and others can't find it again. Other examples of statistical fluctuations which were thought to be real phenomena, including sopme that were significant to hundreds of sigmas. B

Error or Fraud?

46. Carl Djerassi, "Basic Research: The Gray Zone", Science, 1993, 261, 972 BCDE
47. Eliot Marshall, "Secretiveness Found Widespread in Life Sciences", Science, 1997, 276, 525. Interviews revealed reasons that scientists delay publication or do not share samples, mostly to protect their priority, whether for a patent or other financial reasons or for their scientific lead on solving a problem. BCD
48. Cold Fusion
1. G. Taubes, Bad Science: The Short Life and Weird Times of Cold Fusion, Random House, NY, 1993. The rush to publicity/publication, the tendency to fall in love with your own theories (but probably not fraud), and university and funding politics are all part of this story, which is not over yet (see articles for updates). BCE
2. Ron Dagani, "Cold Fusion Believer Turned Skeptic Crusades For More Rigorous Research", Chem. Eng. News, 1995, June 5, 34 - 40. Steven Jones, whose data was more convincing than Pons and Fleischman's, has continued to use better detectors and methods and concludes there is no compelling evidence for electrochemical cold fusion. B
3. John R. Huizenga, Cold fusion, the scientific fiasco of the century, Oxford U. Press, Oxford & New York, 1994. The author was a strong critic of the possibility of cold fusion from the beginning and has actively campaigned against the fusion interpretation of the unexplained heat in electrochemistry. Peer review was also a big issue here. BC
49. Richard S. Westfall, "Newton and the Fudge Factor", Science, 1973, 179, 751 - 758. AB
50. The Cell paper
1. Judy Sarasohn, Science on Trial: the whistle blower, the accused and the Nobel laureate, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1993. Probably more than you wanted to know about Baltimore, Imanishi-Kari, O'Toole, etc. and whether the data was correctly reported. BCDE
2. Daniel J. Kevles, "The Baltimore case: a trial of politics, science and character", W. W. Norton, New York, 1998. This book is very sympathetic to Baltimore and would be a good contrast to that by Sarasohn. BCDE
3. Barbara J. Culliton, "A Bitter Battle over Error", Science, 240, 1720 - 1723; part II: 241, 18 - 21. An interim report on the Imanishi-Kari / Baltimore paper in Cell. B
4. David Baltimore, "Baltimore's Travels", Issues Sci. Technol., 1989 5(4), 48-54. His version of events.
5. David P. Hamilton, "The Baltimore Case - in Brief", Science,1991, 253, 24 - 25. B
6. Richard Stone, "Baltimore Defends Paper at Center of Misconduct Case", Science, 1995, 269, 157. Even though some of the data was taken after the paper was published and the statistics are creative, he claims the conclusions are valid. B
7. Pamela Zurer, "Nobel Laureates disagree at misconduct hearing", Chem. Eng. News, 1995 (July 3), 6. David Baltimore says sloppy record-keeping is normal at HHS ORI hearing; Gilbert disagrees. B
8. Rebecca Rawls, "Imanishi-Kari Cleared" Chem. Eng. News, 1996, July 1, 6 - 7. B
9. Jocelyn Kaiser and Eliot Marshall, "Imanishi-Kari Ruling Slams ORI", Science, 1996, 272, 1864 - 1865. B
10. Pamela Zurer, "In scientific misconduct cases, justice isn't always blind", Chem. Eng. News, 1996, June 24, 31. A commentary on this case which points out that once again the famous and powerful are given more access and better treatment than the powerless, like students and post-doctoral fellows. BCDE
11. Jock Friedy, "How Congressional Pressure Shaped the "Baltimore Case'" Science, 1996, 273, 873 - 875. Congressmen gain the limelight while justice is subverted for all. BCD
51. Donald Hollis, Abusing Cancer Science, Strawberry Fields Press, Chelahis, WA, 1987. Hollis is the fly on the wall observing the struggle over priority in the development of NMR imaging, especially to detect cancer. BC
52. Janet Raloff, "Dowsing Expectations", Sci. News, 1995, 148, 90 - 91. Is there a scientific basis for dowsing? BC
53. Caroline Whitbeck, "Trust and Trustworthiness in Research", Sci. Engin.Ethics, 1995, 1 (4), 403 - 416. Science and society must be able to trust the data and interpretation in the scientific literature. Negligence and recklessness in collecting and interpreting data, and (not) giving credit, and lesser betrayals, also undermine trust and trustworthiness. BC
54. Stephanie J. Bird and David E. Housman, "Trust and the Collection, Selection, Analysis and Interpretation of Data: A Scientist's View", Sci Engin. Ethics, 1995, 1, 371 - 382. A wide variety of pressures affect the reproducibility and trustworthiness of research, including technique, records, models, wishful thinking, etc. A case study helps provide a framework for this article. BCDE
55. Hal Hellman, Great Feuds in Science: Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever Wiley, New York, 1999. These are all very old feuds -- it would be nice to have a more recent colelction, since the norms of scientific practice and collegiality have changed quite a bit since Galileo. The author thinks the feuds helped science, but could disagreements without the fieuds work even better? BC
56. Cold Fusion, series of articles by Scott Chubb, Martin Fleischmann, Stephen E. Jones, David Goodstein, F. Scaramuzzi, J. O'M Bockris, George H. Miley, and David J. Nagel, Accountability in Research, 2000, 8, 1 - 162. Authors were and are experimenters and analysts of the evidence for and against cold fusion; most experienced persecution by other scientists and journalists for even continuing the research. BCD
57. Nicholas J. Turro, "Paradigms Lost and Paradigms Found: Examples of Science Extraordinary and Science Pathological - and How to Tell the Difference", Angew. Chem. Intl. Ed. 2000, 39, 2255 - 2259. A discussion of some classic cases of new theories and observations, self-deception and error, and suggestions for how to detect the pathology of multiplying errors. BF
58. David Goodstein, "In Defense of Robert Andrews Millikan", Amer. Sci., 2001, 89, 54 - 60. It has been know for some years that Millikan reported in his paper on the oil drop experiments that data on all drops was included, when his notebook reveals that is not the case. He may also have mistreated the student whose project it was. This article gives refeerences to less positive analyses too. B
59. Robert L. Park, Voodoo Science: the Road from Foolishness to Fraud, Oxford University Press, 2000. An account of a variety of pathological and fraudulent scientific theories and experimental results, written by a physicist. BF

Fraud and Misconduct

60. W. Broad & N. Wade, Betrayers of the Truth, Simon & Schuster, NY 1982. Some famous scientists of the past were less than candid about their observations. BC
61. Stephen J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, W. Norton, NY, 1981. Preconceived results and carelessness continues to distort the study of human intelligence as a function of genetics and environment. The second edition (1996) also contains commentary on The Bell Curve. BG
62. Alexander Kohn, False Prophets: fraud, error and misdemeanor in science, Blackwell, NY, 1986. A large number of examples of fraud, theft, slander, and misrepresentation in science are discussed thoroughly from the scientist's point of view. He suggests other interpretations for some famous cases than outright fraud. BCDEF
63. Robert Bell, Impure Science: fraud, compromise and political influence in scientific research, Wiley, New York, 1992. Science can hurt the public and vice-versa. But the main point of the book is the influence of money (and fame) on the conduct of science. It's not clear the author correctly identifies the villains - he certainly makes it look as if scientists are a greedy, unscrupulous bunch. BF
64. Marcel LaFollette, Stealing into Print: Fraud, Plaigiarism and Misconduct in Scientific Publishing, Univ of California Press, Berkeley, 1992. The book discusses all the ways the scientist can get credit in the scientific literature that might be deceitful, including mistakes, frauds, misappropriation of data and credit, etc. Provides an excellent discussion of the process by which scientific information becomes public. BCDE
65. The Dark Side of Science, AAAS Pacific Division, California Academy of Science, 1983. A collection of 13 papers on fraud. B
66. Arthur Koestler, The Case of the Midwife Toad, Hutchinson, London, 1971. This classic case of biological fraud attempts to prove that learned behavior can be inherited. BG
67. Joseph Hixson, The Patchwork Mouse, Anchor Press, Garden City, NJ, 1976. This tale of blatant fabrication in genetics research reminds me of some of the things students have done. BCDG
68. Darwin Cheney, ed., Ethical Issues in Research, A selection of articles on misconduct in performance and authorship of research, conflict of interest, research on humans, embryos, animals. BG
69. David J. Miller and Michel Hensen, eds., Research Fraud in the Behavioral and Biomedical Sciences, John Wiley & Sons, NY 1992. The book describes the ethical principles of scientific research, then examines some specific cases of fraud - Burt, Absalti, Darsee - analyzing the psychological approaches to understanding why a scientist might falsify data. Final articles examine the broader impact and ways to minimize fraud in the sciences. ABCDG
70. Bette Hileman, "Misconduct in Science Probed", Chem. Eng. News, 1997, June 23, 24 - 25. Discusses the weaknesses in institutional procedures, especially confidentiality and rules of evidence (poor agreement here since the investigations are not legal proceedings), and restoration of the reputations of the wronfully acused. BCDE
71. Eugene Braunwald, "Commentary: On Analyzing Scientific Fraud", Nature, 1987 (Jan 15), 325, 215 - 216. He blew the whistle on a junior colleague, and discusses the ability of the peer review system to deal with fraud. BCDE
72. J. P. Tangney, "Fraud will out - or will it?", New Sci., 1987, Aug. 6, 62 - 63. B
73. W. J. Broad, "Fraud and the Structure of Science", Science, 1981, 212, 137 - 141. B
74. D. E. Chubin, "Misconduct in Research: an issue of science policy and practice", Minerva, 1985, 23 (Summer), 175 - 202. B
75. H. Zuckerman, "Norms and Deviant Behavior in Science", Sci., Technol. Human Values, 1984, 9(1), 7 - 13. BC
76. Pamela S. Zurer, "Misconduct in Research", Chem. Eng. News, 1987, Apr. 13, 10 - 17. A summary in the midst of a busy season of reports; interviews with colleagues of errant scientists. BC
77. Judith P. Swazey, Melissa S. Anderson and Karen S. Lewis, "Ethical Problems in Academic Research", Amer. Scientist, 1994, 81, 542 - 553. Questionnaires to faculty and students in chemistry, civil engineering, microbiology and sociology revealed that 8% had observed falsification by faculty and 14% had observed falsification by students; among other things, they asked about misuse of funds and discrimination. In addition, the paper is printed in poorly contrasting colors so that it cannot be copied in black and white, not even legally. BCD
78. Sharoni Shafir and Donald Kennedy, "Research Misconduct: Media Exaggerate Results of a Study", The Scientist, June 22, 1998. Every magazine report on the Swazey et al paper portrays the results as proving that fraud is very common in science, and the paper itself presents its conclusions in a faulty way. For example, only about 55% of the surveys were returned - were people more likely to return the survey if they had observed fraud? And if 20 people in one department had observed fraud, was it one example or 20? BCD
79. Melissa S. Anderson, Karen S. Lewis and Jason Earle, "Disciplinary and Departmental Effects on Observations of Faculty and Graduate Student Misconduct", J. Higher Educ., 1994, 65(3), 331 - 350. The same study as Swazey et al, focussing on the climate associated with the misconduct. BCD
80. Efraim Racker, "A View of Misconduct in Science", Nature,1989 (May 11), 339, 91 - 93. BCDE
81. I. Langmuir, "Pathological Science: scientific studies based on non-existent phenomena", Speculations Sci. Technol., 8(2), 77 - 94; Physics Today 1989 (Oct), 36, 47. Widely reprinted - N-rays and other wonders. B
82. W. Stewart and N. Feder, "The Integrity of the Scientific Literature", Nature, 1987, 325, 207 - 214. Studies a very small segment of the biomedical literature with surprising results. B
83. Eugene Garfield, "What Do We Know about Scientific Fraud and Other Forms of Intellectual Dishonesty in Science?, Part 1. The Spectrum of Deviant Behavior in Science", Current Contents, 1987 (6 Apr) 14,, 3 - 7; "Part 2. Why Does Fraud Happen and What Are Its Effects?", Current Contents, 1987 (13 Apr) 15,, 3 - 10. Bird's eye view of an editor and publisher. B
84. C. Manwell and C. M. Ann Baker, "Honesty in Science: a partial test of a sociobiological model of the social structure of science", Search, 1981, 12(6), 151 - 159. B
85. Edward J. Hackett, "A Social Control Perspective on Scientific Misconduct", J. Higher Educ., 1994. 65(3), 242 - 260. After considering the person psychological explanations for misconduct, the author proposes some social controls that would minimize the potential gain and provide better monitoring. BCD
86. Stephen Poliakoff, Blinded by the Sun, A play about a young researcher who claims to have invented a device for producing unlimited amounts of energy - did he cheat and, if so, will he be caught? BC
87. Susan Feigenbaum and David Levy, "The Technological Obsolescence of Scientific Fraud", Rationality and Society, 1996, 8(3), 261 - 276. Biased research should be narrowly replicable but fraud is not replicable at all. Sanctions should distinguish these cases. B
88. Robert J. Petersdorf, "The Pathogenesis of Fraud in Medical Science", Annals of Internal Medicine, 1986, 104, 252 - 254. BFG
89. Patricia Wolf,"Pressure to Publish and Fraud in Science", Annals of Internal Medicine 1986, 104, 254 - 256. BFG
90. M. C. LaFollette, Ethical Misconduct in Research Publication: An Annotated Bibliography, National Science Foundation, 1988. BCDE
91. Integrity and Misconduct in Research. Report of the Commission on Research Integrity, US Dept of Health and Human Services, PHS, 1995. This somewhat controversial report seekds to define research misconduct more explicitly than previous documents, as misappropriation, interference and misrepresentation. Other forms of professional misconduct are obstruction of misconduct investigations and noncompliance with research regulations. B
92. Martin Gardner, Science: Good, Bad and Bogus. B
93. Martin Enserink, "Fraud and Ethics Charges Hit Stroke Drug Trial", Science, 1996, 274, 2004-5. An European study of 7000 patients in 13 countries is questioned because of data falsification by one physician for 400 patients and improper use of placebos. BG
94. Levy and Feigenbaum, The Technical Obsolescence of Scientific Fraud
95. Eleanor G. Shore, "Effectiveness of Research Guidelines in Prevention of Scientific Misconduct", Sci Engin. Ethics, 1995, 1(4), 383 - 387. Clear guidelines should help reduce the chance that flawed research is published, especially if the result of sloppiness or expediency, by cannot prevent all instances of misconduct, expecially that with intention to deceive. B
96. Peter Wilmshurst, "The Code of Silence" The Lancet, 1997, 349, 567 - 569. Contrary to the claims of their colleagues and employers, the colleagues of the most notorious modern perpetrators of data-fabrication did know about the misconduct and chose to gossip about it instead of doing something about it. He visited some of the labs when scientists (e.g. Slutsky) were actively fabricating data and found that they were not very secretive and that most colleagues were aware that something was amiss, yet they concealed the truth, protected them from exposure to the funding agency or the public. This must change. BCD
97. "Researchers who break the rules could be fined", Associated Press, in Baltimore Sun, May 24, 2000, 3A. HHS proposes to fine the individual scientist, the institution and its IRB when medical researchers commit fraud. IRB's will certainly do more monitoring during clinical trials if this proposal is effected. BG
98. Richard Smith, "Time to face up to research misconduct", Brit. Med. J., 1996, 312, 789 - 790. Reports on recent convicted scientific frauds in Britain. BG
99. Stephen Lock, "Lessons from the Pearce affair: handling scientific fraud", Brit. Med. J., 1995, 310, 1547 - 8. An example of a speedy (9 months) resolution (conviction) of a claim of misconduct with lessons to be learned. BG
100. S. Lock and S. Wells, eds. Fraud and misconduct in medical research, 2nd ed., BMJ Publishing Group, London, 1996. A collection of stories about deliberate misrepresentation, including a list of 70 documented cases. BG
101. L. Grayson, Scientific Deception, British Library, London, 1995.
102. Peter Wilmshurst, "An investigation by the ABPI", The Lancet, 1987, Jan 10, 104. A dispute about drug trials by sterling Winthrop reveals the weakness of the system to prevent fraud in drug trials, or correct the record of a drug's "success". BG
103. Michael Hagmann, "Cancer Researcher Sacked got Alleged Fraud", Science, 2000, 287, 1901-2. W. Bezwoda had success with cancer treatments too good to be true. South Africa. BG
104. Robert G. Petersdorf, "The Pathogenesis of Fraud in Medical Science", Ann. Internal Med., 1986, 104, 252 - 4. Yes indeed, the pre-med cheating syndrome (88% of students at 2 medical schools had cheated as pre-meds!) carries over into real life, and the competition and anonymity from the size of science only makes it easier. BG
105. Eliot Marshall "The Misconduct Case that Won't Go Away" Science, 1999, 286, 1076-7 and "Fired Researcher Is Rehired and Refired" 2000, 287, 1183-4. Marguerite Kay was fired for manipulating data but has appealed through the courts and has a lot of faculty support. BCD
106. Karl Sabbagh, A Rum Affair: A True Story of Botanical Fraud, Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2000. The author examines the evidence that a famous scholar, who had exclusive access to the island of Rum, invented observations of plants to prove that the island was spared the ice age. Now that others have access, it appears that the key plants were transplanted from the professor's garden. A good mystery. BG
107. A Research Conference on Research Integrity, Office of Research Integrity, DHHS (November 2000). 200 scientists wereinvited to evaluate the frequency of misconduct found a range: 1 documented cases of fraud per 10,000 scientists per year, 1 of 10 audits found major deviations and 1 of 2 students are willing to fake data. Makes you think about the future. Short report in Science, 2000, 290, 1662-3. B
108. Cheryl Hogue, "Lab Employees Indicted", Chem. Eng. News, 2000, Oct 2, 11. Lab employees (Intertek Testing Services Environmental Labs) face criminal charges for failing to calibrate instruments according to EPA protocols, and altering data top make it appear as if they had. BFH
109. "Clinical Crime", Science, 2000, 289, 1871. VP of BioCryst Pharmaceutical and others conspired to make their new drug to treat skin conditions appear effective, sentenced to three years in prison. BFG
110. Gretchen Vogel, "FDA Moves Against Penn Scientist", Science, 2000, 290, 2049-51. The head of the gene therapy project that killed a teenager after enrolling ineligible patients and administering drugs that had been shown to cause serious harm to test primates and people may be banned fromconducting any more clinical trials. BG

     Statistics

111. Michael Thompson, "Statistics: The Curse of the Analytical Class", Analyst. 1994, 119, 127N. An examination of the literature of analytical chemistry, which uses statistics routinely, reveals a high proportion of inappropriate applications and conclusions. B
112. Cynthia Crossen, Tainted Truth: The Manipulation of Fact in America, Simon and Schuster, NY, 1994. A Wall Street J. reporter calls attention to the misuse of statistics and other numerical data by scientists and the media, some of which constitute fraud (especially omission of inconventient data, deceptive surveys) and the imposition of ideology upon data (e.g. The Bell Curve). Alas, she does not recognize or admit that there might really be uncertainty, e.g. regarding the effects of second-hand smoke. BF
113. John C. Bailar, III, "Science, Statistics and Deception", Ann. Int. Med. 1986, 104, 259 - 260. B
114. Irvin Geis, How to Lie with Statistics, Norton, 1954. This classic is treasured by statistics buffs everywhere. BF
115. A. K. Dewdney, 200% of Nothing, John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1993. An analysis of the lies, damned lies, etc. told with statistics and other mathematics, illustrating inability to understand percentages, ratios and basic mathematical logic, in addition to statistics - with explanations. BF
116. Charmont Wang, Sense and Nonsence of Statistical Inference: Controversy, Misuse and Subtlety, Marcel Dekker, NY, 1993.
117. Darrell Huff, How to Lie with Statistics, Norton, NY, 1996. Be smart or be a sucker. This book tells you how companies try to defraud you by helping you to misread data. BF
118. David B. Resnik, "Statistics, Ethics and Research: An Agenda for Education and Reform", Accountability in Research, 2000, 8, 163 - 188. Some examples of inappropriate use of statistical methods and a plea for ensuring the ethics is included in experimental design and taught to junior scientists. BDFG

Do we always intend to deceive, just a little?

119. Robert G. Bergman, "Irreproducibility in the Scientific Literature: How Often Do Scientists Tell the Whole Truth and Nothing but the Truth?", Perspectives on the Professions, 1989 (Jan), 8, 2 - 3. BCF
120. "Do You Ever Fake a Research Result?", Ind. Chem., 1987 (Feb.) AB
121. Peter B. Medawar, "Is the scientific paper fraudulent? yes; it misrepresents scientific thought", Sat. Rev. 1964 (Aug. 1), 42 - 43. AB
122. "Error and Fraud in the Lab", Ind. Chem., 1987 (May), 84. B
123. Jed Z. Buchwald, The Creation of Scientific Effects, The problematic relationship between scientific theory and experiment. B

Standards for scientific integrity / Defining and punishing misconduct

124. Donald E. Buzzelli, "A Definition of Misconduct in Science: A View from NSF", Science, 1993, 259, 584 - 648. BE
125. Margot O'Toole, "Scientists Must Be Able to Disclose Colleagues' Mistakes without Risking Their Own Jobs or Financial Support", Chronicle of Higher Education, 1989 (Jan 25), 34, A44. CDE
126. Daniel Andersen, Lis Attrup, Nils Axelsen & Povl Riis, Scientific Dishonesty and Good Scientific Practice, Danish Medical Council, Copenhagen, 1992. How science is done, how misconduct is defined, investigated and punished, with mostly medical examples. BG
127. Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process, National Academy Press, Washington, DC 1992. A report prepared by a broadly based committee of scientists identifying areas of threat to scientific integrity and possible solutions. Good bibliography. They recommend:
128. 1. Individual scientists and officials of research institutions should accept formal responsibility for ensuring the integrity of the research process. They should foster an environment, a reward system, and a training process that encourage responsible research practices.
129. 2. Scientists and research institutions should integrate into their curricula educational programs that foster faculty and student awareness of concerns related to the integrity of the research process. BCD
130. Albert H. Teich and Mark S. Frankel, Good Science and Responsible Scientists, AAAS, Washington, DC 1992. A booklet summarizing the conclusions of a National Conference of Lawyers and Scientists with recommendations as to who should take what action. BF
131. Mark S. Frankel, Science, Engineering and Ethics, AAAS, Washington, DC 1988. A collection of symposium papers and discussions. BCF
132. John T. Edsall, Scientific Freedom and Responsibility, AAAS, Washington, DC, 1975. BF. A booklet summarizing discussions of the AAAS Committee on Scientific Freedom and Responsibility. It includes science and values, data integrity, theft of ideas, informed consent, potential forbidden research areas, secrecy, responsibility to the public. BCF
133. Research Ethics, Alan R. Liss, Inc., NY, 1983. A series of interesting readings. B
134. Project on Scientific Fraud and Misconduct, Reports on Workshops 1,2, and 3, AAAS, Washington DC, 1989. Invited papers from the AAAS/ABA National Conference of Lawyers and Scientists. B
135. Pamela S. Zurer, "Commission On Research Integrity Reshaping Definition of Misconduct", Chem. Eng News, 1995 (July 3), 14 - 16. B
136. John M. Braxton and Alan E. Bayer, "Perceptions of Research Misconduct and an Analysis of their Correlates", J. Higher Educ., 1994, 65(3), 351 - 372. A survey of 300 biochemists examined their attitudes about taking action regarding scientific wrongdoing and found a variety of reasons for their reluctance - people of higher status were more likely to take action. BCD
137. Gabor B. Levy, "Scientific Misconduct", Amer. Laboratory, 1996, May, 6, 8. This editorial proposes to define scientific misconduct narrowly, excluding things like misuse of funds, sexual harrassment, etc. which are misconduct for anyone. B
138. P. J. Greene, J. S. Durch, W. Horowitz and V. S. Hooper, "Policies for Responding to Allegations of Fraud in Research", Minerva, 1985, 23(2), 203 - 215.
139. N. Steneck, "Research Universities and Scientific Misconduct: History, Policies and the Future", J. Higher Educ., 1994, 65(3), 210 - 230.
3. Scientists and their Peers
Colleagues in Science
1. Peter J. Feibelman, A Ph.D. is NOT Enough!, Addison-Wesley, New York, 1993. A useful guide to becoming a successful research scientist; ethics not mentioned per se but implicit is the interpersonal contracts. CDE
2. Carl J. Sindermann, The Joy of Science: Excellence and its Rewards, Plenum, NY, 1985. A witty look at how elite scientists spend their time and energy. C
3. Carl J. Sindermann, Winning the Games Scientists Play, Plenum, NY, 1982. A gently humorous and nontechnical look at how ethical and unethical social interactions between scientists affect their satisfaction and success. CDE
4. C. J. Sindermann, Survival Strategies for New Scientists, Plenum, NY, 1987. The book is focussed exclusively on success strategies in the research university environment. CDE
5. Robert K. Merton, "The Matthew Effect in Science", Science, 1968, 159, 53 - 63. Also reprinted in his book, The Sociology of Science, U. of Chicago Press, 1873, 439 - 459. "To those that have, more will be given" - and this is the way science progresses best, he claims.
6. Natalie S. Glance and Bernardo A. Huberman, "The Dynamics of Social Dilemmas", Sci. Amer. 1994, March, 76 - 81. Individuals in groups choose between selfish and cooperative behaior, and will switch suddenly to cooperation - this can lead to good and bad actions by the group. ABFH
7. Charles Officer and Jake Page, The Great Dinosaur Extinction Controversy, Helix Books, Reading, MA, 1996. Several factors probably contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs over thousands of years. Why then do you only hear about the asteroid impact theory? The manipulations of the information received by the public will make you realize how subtle peer mistreatment can be. Also see the WWW site of Dewey McLean, who was unfortunate enough to defend the experimental evidence for volcanism. BCDEF
8. Keith Stewart Thomson, "Anatomy of the Extinction Debate", Amer. Sci. 1988, 76, 59 - 61. An analysis of the debate as a paradigm for how theories come to be accepted. BCDEF
9. William Lanouette, "The Odd Couple and the Bomb", Sci. Amer., 2000, Nov, 104 - 109. Fermi and Szilard were very different in their world views, work styles and personalities, but were able to collaborate successfully. B

Credit and Publication

10. Marcia Angell, "Publish or Perish: A Proposal", Annals of Internal Medicine, 1986, 104, 261 - 262. BCD
11. Edward J. Huth, "Irresponsible Authorship and Wasteful Publication", Annals of Internal Medicine, 1986, 104, 257 - 259. BCD
12. Jeffrey Mervis, "Bitter Suit over Research Work Asks 'Who Deserves the Credit?", The Scientist, 1989, 3(8), 1, 4-5. C
13. Eliot Marshall, "Trial Set to Focus on Peer Review", Science, 1996, 273, 1162 - 1164. Was data stolen when research funded by Cistron was peer-reviewed by an employee of Immunex? Even if it was, did the authors give up their rights to secrecy and exclusivity by submitting the paper? BC
14. Jenny McFarland & MIT Association for Postdoctoral Women, Authorship on Publications, in Handbook for Entering Postdoctoral Associates and Fellows, MIT, pp 8-9. C
15. Eliot Marshall, "Dispute Splits Schizophrenia Study", Science, 1995, 268, 792 - 794. A pricipal scientist who was booted out of a lab is published his work anyway, and including his colleagues' contributions without their knowledge and they responded by publishing different versions. C
16. Gary Taubes, "Plagiarism Suit Wins; Experts Hope It Won't Set a Trend", Science,1995, 268, 1125. A woman scientist sued other scientists on behalf of the Federal government (qui tam) for making false claims and stealing intellectual property (her dissertation). C
17. Mary Frank Fox, "Scientific Misconduct and Editorial and Review Processes", J. Higher Educ., 1994, 65(3), 298 - 309. The review process can assist in the reduction of errors and fraud in publications, but cannot prevent them. BC
18. Derek J. De Solla Price, "Ethics of Scientific Publication", Science, 1964, 144, 655 - 657. He discusses freedom to publish, credit, citations, retrieval and availability and scholarship. BCDE
19. Elizabeth Pennisi, "The Race to the Ribosome Structure", Science, 1999, 285, 2048 - 2051. Jamie H. Cate et al, "X-Ray Crystal Structure of 70S Ribosome Functional Complexes" Science, 1999, 285, 2095 - 2133; Gloria M. Culver et al "Identification of an RNA- Protein Bridge Spanning the Ribosomal Subunit Interface", Science, 1999, 285, 2133 - 2135; additional references to Yonath and Ramakrishnan in the articles. What do you do if you "scoop" the person who has contributed the most to solving a difficult and important problem in science? BCDE
20. Bruce Agnew, "NIH Eyes Sweeping Reform of Peer Review", Science, 1999, 286, 1074 - 6. A proposal to restructure the committee (study section) system so that it can be evaluated continuously. CDE
21. Eliot Marshall, "Patent Suit Pits Postdoc Against Former Mentor", Science, 2000, 287, 2399 - 2401. Postdoc sues because her advisor (and university) patents her discovery, but judge rules that the university owned it by virtue of the conditions of employment, i.e. her contract. Letters 288, 1173-4 suggest that her case is not so clear- cut since she does have her name on one patent. CDE
22. John H. Barton, "Reforming the Patent System", Science, 2000, 287, 1933 - 4. The number of patent lawayers has increased an abrupt 50% in the last 12 years -- the biotech and materials patents have increased the need, impossible gizmos have been patented (no more working models) and the licencing system has become ridiculously complex. BCDEFG
23. David Voss, ""New Physics' Finds a Haven At the Patent Office", Science, 1999, 287, 1252-4. Some pretty crazy gadgets which violate the basic laws of physics and thermodynamics have been patented because examiners are poorly trained and paid accordingly (you won't get Albert Einstein as your examiner!). Patents on successful inventions are devalued and phony inventions get financing as a result. BF
24. David Malakoff, "Critics Say Rulings Give State U. License to Steal", Science, B2000, 289, 2267,9. US Supreme court gives states more protection from patent infringement suits than commercial enterprises, leaving open the possibility that their employees will be able to "steal" information, like software or texts, that is not available to others with impunity. B

Discrimination among equals, problems of women and minorities

See also Discrimination toward Protegees and Employees

25. Judith A. Ramaley, Covert Discrimination and Women in the Sciences, AAAS, Washington, DC 1978. Thorough and thoughtful symposium. CDE
26. Clarice M. Yentsch & Carl J. Sindermann, The Woman Scientist: Meeting the Challenges for a Successful Career, Plenum, NY, 1992. Discussion of the hindrances to success for women academic research scientists and ways to overcome them, based on 200 interviews and even more questionnaires. CDE
27. Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Johns Hopkins Univ., 1982. This much-quoted book is THE source of information of women in science in America, where they were not as plentiful as in Europe. CDE
28. Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940 - 1972, Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, 1995. A well-documented story of resolution and courage in the face of repeated obstacles, during World War II, when women's contributions were desired, and after, when they were not. CDE
29. Gerhard Sonnert and Gerald Holton, "Career Patterns of Women and Men in the Sciences", Amer. Sci. 1996, 84, 63 - 71. In the physical sciences, mathematics and engineering, but not biology, women fail to obtain promotions at the same rate as men. Article based on questionnaires and comments. CDE
30. Mary Morse, Women Changing Science. Voices from a Field in Transition, Insight Books, Plenum Press, NY, 1995. Women scientists discuss scientific culture, ethics and their careers in response to interview questions. Discussion of the stories gives a vision of men and women leading full lives while having satisfying scientific careers CDE
31. Otto Hahn "The Discovery of Fission", Sci. Amer. 1958 (Feb), 198, 77; Ruth Sime, " Lise Meitner and Fission: Fallout from the Discovery" Angew. Chem. Intl. Ed. Engl. 1991, 30, 942. Meitner's contributions to the discovery of nuclear fission were clearly minimized by Hahn, but other people observed who did what. Perhaps it was not politically expedient to recognize the contributions of a Jewish woman too lavishly, but he apparently did help her escape. CDE
32. Pnina G. Abir-Am and Dorinda Outram, Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789 - 1979, Rutgers U Press, NJ, 1987. This book focuses more on the women's personal lives than most of the women-in-science books. CE
33. Jonathan R. Cole, Fair Science: Women in the Scientific Community, Free Press (Macmillan), Ny, 1977. This soliological examination of the factors that correlate with success and status in sciene compares the parameters for men and women, and accounts for all the discrpancies in women's status with such things as rank, department status (job and degree), papers published, etc. It does not seem to occur to him that the discrepancies in rank, department status, etc. might have been caused by discrimination. Book had great influence. CDE
34. Gerhard Sonnert and Gerald Holton, Gender Differences in Science Careers: The Project Access Study, Rutgers Univ Press, Using results from 699 questionnaires and 200 interviews with winners of prestigious post-doctoral fellowships in science, mathematics and engineering, the authors develop a theoretical framework to test a glass-ceiling hypothesis. CDE
35. Vivian Gornick, Women in Science: 100 Journeys into the Territory. Simon and Shuster, New York, 1990. Interviews with successful women scientists. CDE
36. Linda Jean Shepherd, Liftin